Development of a cost-effective LiDAR-assisted photogrammetry workflow for high resolution 3D-AR anatomical modeling

The integration of three-dimensional (3D) and augmented reality (AR) technologies into anatomy education facilitates broader access to anatomical content and enhances learner motivation and cognitive engagement by enabling interactive, spatially rich exploration of complex structures. However, high costs, technical complexity, and restricted access to specialized imaging equipment and software often hinder adoption of these digital anatomy tools. This study aimed to develop a smartphone-LiDAR-assisted photogrammetry workflow for generating low-cost, accessible and realistic 3D models for anatomy education. A canine femur was digitized following a streamlined workflow that included specimen preparation, LIDAR-assisted image acquisition using a smartphone, photogrammetric reconstruction, and hosting of the resulting model in 3D web and AR format in an online learning management system platform called Clon Digital. The anatomical plausibility of the generated model was assessed through a rubric-based expert review conducted by seven independent veterinary anatomy lecturers, focusing on morphology, anatomical landmarks, surface detail, and overall reconstruction quality. Subsequently, the educational usability and user experience of the model was analyzed through a multidimensional perception survey completed by veterinary students and lecturers (n = 141). The survey focused on anatomical fidelity, educational value, self-learning potential, user interface, and engagement. Participants reported high satisfaction across all domains while identifying minor technical limitations. These findings indicate that smartphone-based LiDAR-assisted photogrammetry can generate and distribute 3D-AR models using an accessible workflow for educational use. This workflow offers an ethical, cost-effective, and scalable complement that supports the integration of immersive digital anatomy resources in anatomical education.