Redefining creativity in AI era: Bloom's taxonomy framework and peer interaction elevate higher-order thinking skills

Artificial intelligence is transforming cognitive learning by reshaping pedagogical models and raising questions about its impact on higher-order thinking. AI-driven personalized learning improves knowledge acquisition, but its effect on creativity remains largely unexplored. Most research emphasizes content delivery over cognitive engagement, which leaves gaps in understanding how AI influences deeper learning processes. This study investigates how ChatGPT-enabled personalized learning, framed through Bloom's Taxonomy, influences creative thinking among Indonesian higher education students, considering the moderating role of peer interaction. Using SEM via Smart-PLS 4.1, data from 533 Indonesian students reveal that personalized learning strengthens both lower-order cognitive skills-such as remembering, understanding, and applying-and higher-order functions, including analyzing, evaluating, and creating, which are essential for creativity. Among these, analyzing and creating have the strongest impact on creative thinking. Peer interaction selectively moderates this relationship, significantly enhancing creativity in tasks involving creation, while its effect on other cognitive functions remains limited. This study introduces a dynamic framework that integrates personalized learning, Bloom's Taxonomy, and peer collaboration, offering new insights into how tailored cognitive processes and selective peer engagement drive creativity in learning environments.