Behavior and toxicity of Buckminsterfullerene (C₆₀) in aquatic environments: A 30-year review

Buckminsterfullerene (C₆₀) is widely applied in various fields due to its unique physicochemical properties and has been increasingly detected in aquatic environments. This review examines the current knowledge of C₆₀ behavior and toxicity in aquatic environments over the past 30 years. Once released into aquatic systems, C₆₀ undergoes complex processes, including dispersion, aggregation, sedimentation, transformation, and interactions with co-pollutants. These processes influence its mobility, bioavailability, and toxicity, affecting organisms from algae to benthos. Mechanisms for these toxicities involve solvent-related effects, reactive oxygen species generation, physical contact, and carrier effects with co-pollutants. Furthermore, current evidence suggests that the ecological risks of C₆₀ are likely underestimated, particularly in sediment-associated, food-web, and multi-pollutant exposure scenarios. This review also identifies critical knowledge gaps, including the fate of sediment-associated C₆₀, the limited diversity of test organisms, the lack of environmental realism in exposure conditions, and challenges in maintaining C₆₀ purity during preparation.