Androgen driven organoids for the male urogenital system

Androgen signalling plays a central role in the development and function of the male urogenital system, including the adrenal gland, prostate, and testis. Disruption of the androgen axis underlies diseases ranging from infertility to castration-resistant prostate cancer, yet current models fail to fully display its multi-organ and hormone-driven complexity. Organoid systems provide a promising platform to model androgen-responsive tissues while preserving three-dimensional structure and cellular heterogeneity, with the ability for long-term culture and cryopreservation. Recent advances have enabled the generation of prostate, testicular, and adrenocortical organoids, offering new opportunities to study androgen receptor signalling, steroidogenesis, and lineage plasticity. Here, we review androgen-driven organoids across the male urogenital axis and discuss emerging strategies to recapitulate endocrine crosstalk. Despite these advances, current models remain reductionist and lack systemic integration. Future efforts toward multi-organ platforms and engineered microenvironments may enable the elucidation of the role of androgen signalling in physiological conditions and disease development.