Measuring social norms related to violent child discipline in Uganda: Mixed-methods scale development and validation

Norms-shifting interventions show promise in addressing violence against children (VAC), yet few culturally grounded quantitative measures of VAC-related norms exist, limiting norms change research and intervention evaluation. We aimed to document violent child discipline behaviors and norms in Uganda and develop psychometrically validated descriptive and injunctive norms measures.

Using a mixed-methods design, we interviewed young fathers and community members (n = 1044) in six regions of Uganda to identify VAC-related norms and inform survey item development. Items were included in surveys administered to three cohorts of young fathers (2023-2025) participating in the evaluation of REAL Fathers, a fatherhood mentorship intervention (ages 16-25; n = 2412; 752; and 440). We used exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis to evaluate the factor structure and reliability of the resulting measures.

Qualitative data revealed strong social expectations supporting physical discipline, rooted in the belief that parents who love their children must discipline them firmly. Quantitative results indicated widespread agreement that VAC is commonly practiced and considered necessary for raising successful adults. Psychometric analyses supported a two-factor structure-harsh discipline and father engagement norms (F1) and gendered caregiving and household authority norms (F2)-with high internal consistency across all samples (F1:α = 0.90-0.94; F2:α = 0.78-0.90).

By grounding scale development in qualitative exploration of fathers' normative environments, this study bridges gaps between qualitative norms research, quantitative measurement, and program evaluation, and provides validated measures to support the evaluation and design of interventions that address interconnected norms linking masculinity, gendered caregiving, household authority, and household violence.