Wafer-scale conformal metasurface optics

Curved and conformal optics provide additional geometric degrees of freedom that enable enhanced optical performance while satisfying non-optical constraints such as ergonomics, aerodynamics, and wearability. However, existing fabrication approaches for curved metasurfaces are limited in scalability, geometry control, and alignment accuracy. Here we show a scalable fabrication strategy for curved and conformal metasurface optics based on thermoforming, an industry-standard manufacturing process for thermoplastics. Our approach enables wafer-scale production of highly curved metasurfaces with millimeter-level radii of curvature and micron-level alignment precision. We develop a predictive thermorheological model that accurately captures and compensates for the large deformations induced during thermoforming, preserving the intended optical response and enabling diffraction-limited performance. As demonstrations, we realize freestanding curved metalenses, conformal refractive-metasurface hybrid optics, and an artificial compound eye with a wide field of view, reduced aberrations, and uniform imaging performance. These results establish thermoforming as a scalable manufacturing platform for next-generation conformal photonic systems.