Spatial variations in urban park accessibility and equity under multimodal travel: a case study of Beijing

Equity in urban green space depends not only on whether aggregate park supply is sufficient, but also on how supply aligns with population demand and everyday travel conditions.

Taking Beijing as a case study, we represented supply by park area and demand by population distribution. We used the three-step floating catchment area method (3SFCA) to assess accessibility to park green spaces under walking, cycling, and driving. Population-weighted Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients, local bivariate Moran's I, and importance-performance analysis (IPA) were then used to identify inequities and priority areas.

Accessibility and equity exhibited marked spatial differences. The urban core had the lowest mean accessibility and the strongest overlap between high population demand and low accessibility, making it the primary area for improvement. The urban fringe had higher overall accessibility, but inadequate local green-space service remained pronounced under walking. This pattern reflected a transitional inequity between residential expansion and park provision. The suburb had high mean accessibility but an unequal distribution of walking opportunities, indicating that large-area green-space supply does not necessarily translate into daily access for residents of suburban towns. Park-size classes also performed different functions. District green spaces formed the most stable backbone of area-based accessibility. Regional green spaces relied more on cycling and driving for cross-zone service. Small and micro green spaces and community green spaces were critical for closing local-service gaps in high-density areas.

Beijing should therefore shift from simply increasing green-space area toward coordinated zone-, class-, and mode-specific provision. Local green spaces should be prioritized in the urban core. The urban fringe requires stronger active-travel connections between expanding residential areas and district green spaces. In the suburb, daily access should be improved while large green spaces are protected.