Associations between ADHD behavior and attachment (in)security in middle childhood: A longitudinal study

Research has consistently suggested an association between ADHD behavior and insecure attachment, yet longitudinal data in middle childhood are largely absent. In particular, the directionality of this association and the role of oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) behavior remain unclear. This longitudinal study therefore examined these links across three annual waves in a Western-European community sample. Data were available for 614 children at Wave 1 (Mage = 10.28, SD = 0.58, range 9-12; 44% boys, 54% girls), 470 at Wave 2 (Mage = 10.28, SD = 0.61, range 10-13; 44% boys, 54% girls), and 385 at Wave 3 (Mage = 12.01, SD = 0.58, range 10-14; 45% boys, 54% girls). ADHD and ODD behavior were rated by mothers using the Child Behavior Checklist; children's attachment was assessed through both explicit (questionnaires) and implicit (secure base script knowledge) measures. Random Intercept Cross‑Lagged Panel Models revealed stable small to moderate between‑child associations between ADHD behavior and attachment (in)security (β = -0.550 to 0.367), which largely remained significant after controlling for ODD behavior (β = -0.517 to 0.295). Cross‑lagged effects, reflecting prospective within-child processes, were mostly non‑significant, providing little evidence for bidirectional associations in middle childhood.