Nanomaterials in Agriculture and Their Potential Hazards: A Review

Nanomaterials are increasingly applied in modern agriculture to improve crop productivity, nutrient efficiency, and plant protection through fertilizers, pesticides, and delivery systems. However, their growing implementation raises significant concerns regarding environmental fate, ecological toxicity, and potential risks to human health. This review aims to (i) summarize current knowledge on nanomaterial applications in agriculture and (ii) critically evaluate their associated environmental and health risks. The manuscript integrates evidence on nanoparticle behavior in soil-plant-water systems, including transport, transformation, uptake, and accumulation across trophic levels. Particular attention is given to key toxicity mechanisms such as oxidative stress, membrane damage, genotoxicity, and bioaccumulation across terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. The review also highlights limitations of current studies, which are predominantly short-term and laboratory-based, lacking long-term field validation and standardized risk assessment approaches. Emerging approaches such as artificial intelligence-based optimization and commercial nano-enabled agricultural products, along with existing regulatory frameworks, are further discussed. By integrating agronomic, toxicological, and regulatory perspectives, this review provides a comprehensive systems-level overview of nano-enabled agriculture, emphasizing the urgent need for harmonized risk assessment methodologies, long-term environmental monitoring, and interdisciplinary research.