New molecular and historical evidence on ancient Egyptian embalming

Mumia vera aegyptiaca was a mummy-derived medicinal substance widely used in medieval and early modern medicine, yet its material composition and biological activity remain poorly understood. Here, we integrate Egyptological and pharmaceutical-historical analysis of 41 textual sources with LC-MS/MS-based metabolomics, molecular networking, machine-learning-assisted annotation, and bioactivity testing to investigate ancient Egyptian embalming materials and historical Mumia vera samples. We analyzed 24 objects from university and pharmacy museum collections, including historical Mumia vera products, mummified body parts, embalming residues, bandages, and two mummified skulls. Comparative metabolomics revealed substantial heterogeneity among materials labeled as Mumia vera, but also recurrent molecular signatures consistent with aged conifer resins, including oxidized abietane-type diterpenoids. Several samples contained Aloe-associated metabolites, including aloeresin A/D- and aloin-related compounds. These data reveal Aloe-associated metabolites in ancient Egyptian embalming-related materials and support the presence of Aloe spp.-derived exudates in selected samples. The convergence of molecular and textual evidence further raises the possibility that a previously unresolved Egyptian term from the 2nd millennium BC may refer to Aloe sp. or an Aloe-derived product. Comparative metabolomics also linked an inconspicuous powder sample to a specific mummified head, although their curatorial association had not been securely documented. Finally, a historical Mumia vera aegyptiaca extract modestly protected MDCK cells from influenza virus-induced cytopathic effects, whereas the isolated major compound 7-oxodehydroabietic acid was inactive on its own. Together, these findings show how integrating textual scholarship, pharmaceutical history, and molecular analysis can refine the interpretation of ancient Egyptian embalming practices, museum objects, and historical medicines.