Effects of OPTIMAL-based training on golf putting performance under stressful conditions

OPTIMAL (Optimizing Performance Through Intrinsic Motivation and Attention for Learning) theory proposes that enhanced expectancies, autonomy support, and an external focus of attention facilitate motor learning. This study examined whether a putting program incorporating these factors would improve performance under low-stress and high-stress conditions. Thirty-two novice college students aged 18-25 years (13 women and 19 men; mean age = 24.09 ± 1.52 years) were randomly assigned to an OPTIMAL or control group. Participants completed a pretest, three 20-putt practice sessions, and a retention test 1 day later. The pretest and retention test each included 20 putts under each stress condition. During practice, the OPTIMAL group received positive social-comparative feedback, selected the sequence of colored golf balls, and was instructed to adopt an external focus, whereas the control group completed matched practice without these manipulations. A significant group × time interaction was found for putting performance, F(1,30) = 18.982, p < .001, η²p = 0.388. Collapsing across stress conditions, the OPTIMAL group improved from the pretest to the retention test (p < .001) and outperformed the control group at the retention test (p = .007). Putting scores were lower under the high-stress condition than under the low-stress condition, F(1, 30) = 14.468, p < .001, η²p = 0.325. No group-related effects were found for anxiety. The integrated OPTIMAL program improved golf putting learning across stress conditions, but no evidence of a stress-specific protective effect or improved anxiety regulation was found.