Unraveling pyrethroid-induced multisystem toxicity in fish: a review of pathways, drivers, and countermeasures

Pyrethroid pesticides, widely applied in agriculture and public health, frequently contaminate aquatic ecosystems and pose substantial risks to teleost fish due to their lipophilicity and bioaccumulation potential. This review synthesizes recent advances in understanding pyrethroid-induced multisystem toxicity in teleosts, covering neurotoxicity via voltage-gated sodium channel disruption, cardiovascular impairment, reproductive and endocrine disruption, immunotoxicity, and metabolic dysfunction. Oxidative stress emerges as a common mediator across these effects. Toxicity is modulated by abiotic factors (temperature, salinity, sediment organic matter), biotic factors (species, developmental stage, sex), and co-exposure with other contaminants. Detoxification strategies include physical/chemical remediation, microbial biodegradation, and nutritional or immunomodulatory interventions that enhance endogenous antioxidant defenses. Despite progress, critical knowledge gaps remain regarding chronic low-level exposure, metabolite toxicity, transgenerational epigenetic effects, and climate-change interactions. Future research should integrate molecular, organismal, and environmental data to develop predictive risk assessment frameworks and field-applicable mitigation measures, ensuring sustainable pyrethroid use while safeguarding fish health and aquatic biodiversity.