Analytical techniques and method-dependent biases in micro- and nanoplastics research in plant systems

Microplastics and nanoplastics are increasingly recognized as emerging contaminants in agroecosystems, yet their interactions with plant systems remain insufficiently understood. Recent evidence indicates that plants can take up and accumulate microplastics and nanoplastics through roots and foliar exposure, leading to their accumulation in different tissues and raising concerns about potential impacts on plant physiology and food safety. However, elucidating these processes is strongly constrained by methodological limitations arising from complex plant matrices, heterogeneous particle distribution, and the detection of small-sized plastics. This review focuses on current and emerging techniques for the detection of micro- and nanoplastics in plant systems, including vibrational spectroscopy, mass spectrometry, and imaging techniques. These key methods are assessed in the context of plant-specific applications, with emphasis on their capabilities for quantification, size resolution, and spatial localization, as well as their limitations arising from plant matrix interference. By highlighting key methodological challenges and future needs, this review aims to provide practical guidance for method selection and promote more reliable, comparable, and standardized research on microplastics and nanoplastics in plants.