Characterizing paraben exposure in the general Korean population (2015-2023): Temporal trends, vulnerable subgroups, and exposure determinants

Parabens are widely used preservatives in cosmetics, personal care products, pharmaceuticals, and foods. Given their potential endocrine-disrupting effects and widespread human exposure, understanding temporal trends is important. However, age-specific changes and related exposure contributors over time remain insufficiently characterized in Korea. Using data from the Korean National Environmental Health Survey (KoNEHS) Cycles 3-5, this study examined urinary paraben exposure trends from 2015 to 2023, identified high-risk groups using estimated daily intake and hazard quotients (HQs), and explored potential contributors to exposure. Urinary methyl-, propyl-, and butyl paraben (MeP, PrP, and BuP) concentrations declined in most age groups by 52.8-73.9%, 76.5-89.7%, and 40.0-66.7%, respectively, whereas ethyl paraben (EtP) remained relatively stable. Preschoolers deviated from this overall pattern, with MeP and PrP increasing from Cycle 4 to Cycle 5, in contrast to declining trends reported among preschool-aged children in other countries. HQ exceedances for PrP and BuP were mainly observed among preschoolers and adults, suggesting that potential concerns remain for these specific age groups despite overall declines in exposure. Medication and antibacterial product use were associated with higher paraben concentrations among preschoolers, whereas medication, body and hair product, and makeup product use showed similar associations among adults. These findings, based on a nationally representative dataset, provide evidence of changing paraben exposure patterns in Korea from 2015 to 2023 and highlight vulnerable subgroups requiring targeted exposure reduction efforts.