Dairy farm system configurations and predictors of multidimensional climate-smart practice adoption in the U.S

Dairy systems face mounting climate pressures that require mitigation and adaptation. However, adoption of climate-smart dairy practices is typically evaluated one practice at a time, obscuring how producers combine practices into a whole-farm system. We surveyed U.S. dairy producers (n = 920) on adoption of 12 climate-smart practices and duration of use. Adaptation practices were widespread: 82-87% currently use indoor housing or cooling fans. Mitigation adoption was uneven; land-based strategies such as forage diversification were more common than capital-intensive manure and animal-based technologies. Discontinuation was rare for core infrastructure (5-8% of users for indoor housing and cooling fans) but reached about 30% for feed additives. Latent class analysis identified three farm-system configurations, distinguished primarily by grazing and land-based engagement and by longevity of current practice use: housing and cooling focused, diversified and moderate (shortest longevity), and grazing and land based (longest longevity). Grazing access and perceived practice efficacy were the strongest predictors of configuration membership; most perceived barriers, priorities, program participation, and climate beliefs were not significant. Configuration membership thus tracks a farm's existing structure more than most attitudes or institutional engagement. Mitigation opportunities differ by farm structure: housing- and cooling-focused farms have mitigation potential in manure management and forage diversification; feed additives and low-infrastructure manure practices such as composting may be most appropriate for grazing- and land-based farms; and diversified farms may benefit from multi-practice bundling. There is no single pathway to climate-smart practice implementation; outreach should be attentive to each farm's existing structure and operational history.