Metal-organic frameworks for antibiotic removal from water and wastewater

The persistence of antibiotics in aquatic environments has emerged as a critical environmental challenge due to their extensive use, incomplete metabolism, and continuous release from municipal, hospital, and industrial sources. Their accumulation in water and wastewater systems fosters antimicrobial resistance, disrupts ecosystems, and poses severe risks to public health. Conventional adsorbents such as activated carbon and zeolites often fall short in terms of selectivity, regeneration, and adsorption capacity, necessitating innovative alternatives. Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), with their tunable porosity, high surface areas, adjustable chemical functionalities, and structural diversity, have attracted significant attention as next-generation adsorbents for antibiotic removal. This review provides a comprehensive discussion of the occurrence and impacts of antibiotics in aquatic systems, followed by a critical evaluation of the adsorption performance of pristine MOFs, MOF derivatives, and MOF-based composites. Emphasis is placed on synthetic methodologies, purification/activation strategies, and mechanistic insights underlying antibiotic-MOF interactions. Furthermore, the study highlights the regeneration potential of MOFs for sustainable applications, compares their performance with conventional adsorbents, and identifies the persisting challenges in stability, scalability, and selectivity. Finally, knowledge gaps and future directions are outlined, focusing on defect engineering, hybrid frameworks, and other critical factors governing efficient application in real wastewater treatment to accelerate the translation of laboratory studies into practical deployment. By consolidating advances and challenges, this work positions MOFs as promising candidates for addressing the global threat of antibiotic pollution in water and wastewater.