Greenery or fear: Site use of Himalayan ibex in a predator-dominant landscape

The Himalayan ibex (Capra sibirica), a prized trophy and crucial prey species of the snow leopard (Panthera uncia), has increased in abundance alongside snow leopard populations due to ongoing conservation efforts. However, the behavioral strategies that enable ibex to persist in the predator-rich mountain ecosystems of Pakistan remain poorly understood. To address this gap, we investigated habitat use and co-occurrence patterns of Himalayan ibex and snow leopards by using occupancy modeling. Ibex occupancy was positively associated with rugged terrain and higher elevations and negatively associated with distance from roads. Snow leopards showed a preference for rugged habitats. The co-occurrence of these species was mediated by roads. Ibex avoided snow leopard abundant areas by shifting toward more remote locations to reduce predation risk, whereas snow leopards adaptively track these prey movements. This study suggests that protecting remote, heterogeneous landscapes is essential for sustaining mountain ecosystems and predator-prey dynamics in northern Pakistan.