Dead Cell-Based Carriers: Strategies, Biomedical Applications, and Prospects

Living cells have been explored for drug delivery due to their active motility and homing ability; however, their potential toxicity, uncontrolled proliferation, and poor stability severely hinder their practical application and clinical translation. In recent years, dead cells have emerged as promising delivery vehicles due to their enhanced safety, improved stability, and retention of key bioactive molecules. In this review, we summarize the fabrication strategies and delivery characteristics of four types of dead carriers including microalgae, yeasts, bacteria, and mammalian cells in treating diseases such as bacterial pneumonia, inflammatory bowel disease, and cancer. We also discuss the therapeutic mechanisms of endogenous bioactive components, platform-specific limitations, and the advantages/disadvantages of dead cell-based carriers. Finally, we formulate general design principles for dead cell carriers and provide a forward-looking perspective on key translational bottlenecks, including safety assessment, standardized manufacturing, and regulatory pathways, with the aim of guiding the development of safe and effective dead cell-based delivery systems.