Herbicide formulations: evolution, environmental risks, and green innovation prospects

Weeds are the most widespread biotic constraint to agricultural production, and herbicide-based control remains the most cost-effective approach in most cropping systems. A herbicide's efficacy, safety and environmental footprint depend as much on formulation as on active ingredient. This review synthesises the global evolution of herbicide formulations, compares regional markets and regulations (European Union, United States, Brazil, Africa, Southeast Asia, China), and analyses the limits of conventional formulations and prospects for greener innovation. Herbicide formulations have evolved through three phases: rudimentary systems (1940s-1960s), environmentally improved systems (1970s-1990s) and functional, smart systems (2000s-present). Conventional formulations achieve only 10-30% delivery efficiency, with > 70% of applied active ingredients lost to drift, runoff and degradation; 512 weed species are now resistant to at least one mode of action. The global herbicide formulation market reached US$38.2 billion in 2023; China is the largest producer (about 70% of global glyphosate capacity) and consumer (US$9.7 billion). No genuinely new herbicidal mode of action has reached the market. Formulation innovation is complementary to, not a substitute for, new-chemistry discovery: improved delivery increases the efficiency and safety of existing active ingredients, but durable weed control also requires new modes of action and integration with biological and agronomic tools. Nanotechnology-enabled targeted delivery, active ingredient-optimised design, bio-based carriers and precision application offer a realistic pathway to more efficient, safer and more sustainable herbicide formulations, and to overcoming China-specific bottlenecks in adjuvants and high-value formulation technology. © 2026 Society of Chemical Industry.