Contemporary surgical training: theoretical frameworks, objective assessment and generational adaptation

Contemporary surgical education has moved beyond technical skill to become a structured process aimed at developing surgeons competent in every dimension of their practice. Patient safety, the incorporation of new generations, and the evolution of educational models have transformed how surgery is taught and learned. This article reviews the main training models and validated assessment scales that allow objective measurement of resident progress, integrating six key domains in surgical development: technical, non-technical, clinical judgment, autonomy, clinical transfer, and clinical impact. It highlights the need for the trainer to act as an architect of learning, combining different tools to achieve objective, safe, and generation-adapted teaching. Training Generation Z surgeons requires balancing guidance and independence while maintaining educational rigor and patient safety as essential pillars.