Five hundred years of specialty certification and compulsory continuing medical education. Venice 1300-1801

From 1300 to 1801, Venice required an early form of specialty certification for medical practice and the yearly attendance of refresher courses in anatomy by all licensed practitioners in the city. The latter requirement provoked ingenious evasions, which the Venetian government continually tried to overcome. This article describes the system and its implementation, based on Venetian archival documents.