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Related Concept Videos

Hypothalamic-Pituitary Axis01:37

Hypothalamic-Pituitary Axis

The response to stress—be it physical or psychological, acute or chronic—involves activation of the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) axis. The HPA axis is part of the neuroendocrine system because it involves both neuronal and hormonal communication. Its function is to regulate homeostatic systems—metabolic, cardiovascular, and immune—providing the necessary means to respond to a stressor.
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Postganglionic sympathetic fibers (except those supplying the sweat glands) releasing noradrenaline or norepinephrine are called noradrenergic or adrenergic neurons. Noradrenaline, dopamine, adrenaline, or epinephrine are collectively called "catecholamines" as they contain a catechol moiety and an amine side chain. The five stages of neurotransmitter release involve their synthesis, storage, release, reuptake and metabolism.
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Sympathetic Pathways: Collateral Ganglia and Adrenal Medulla01:27

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Collateral Ganglia
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jul 14, 2026

Mouse Adrenal Chromaffin Cell Isolation
18:30

Mouse Adrenal Chromaffin Cell Isolation

Published on: January 5, 2007

Central cholinergic stimulation causes adrenal epinephrine release.

B Kennedy, D S Janowsky, S C Risch

    The Journal of Clinical Investigation
    |September 1, 1984
    PubMed
    Summary

    Central cholinergic stimulation in humans, using physostigmine, selectively increased epinephrine from the adrenal medulla. This response also elevated blood pressure and pulse rate, indicating a link between central cholinergic activity and the sympathoadrenal system.

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    Area of Science:

    • Neuropharmacology
    • Autonomic Nervous System Physiology

    Background:

    • Cholinergic drugs stimulate the adrenal medulla in animals.
    • Central cholinergic effects on the human sympathoadrenal system remain unclear.

    Purpose of the Study:

    • To investigate the effects of central cholinergic stimulation on the human sympathoadrenal system.
    • To determine if physostigmine selectively stimulates the adrenal medulla in humans.

    Main Methods:

    • Administered physostigmine (cholinesterase inhibitor) to human subjects pretreated with peripheral cholinergic blockers.
    • Measured plasma epinephrine and norepinephrine levels.
    • Monitored pulse rate and blood pressure.

    Main Results:

    • A dose of 0.022 mg/kg physostigmine significantly increased plasma epinephrine and slightly increased norepinephrine.
    • A lower dose of physostigmine increased epinephrine but not norepinephrine.
    • Subjects experienced increased pulse, blood pressure, and anxiety with elevated epinephrine.

    Conclusions:

    • Central cholinergic stimulation selectively activates the adrenal medulla in humans.
    • Physostigmine effectively stimulates epinephrine release.
    • Central cholinergic activity influences cardiovascular function and subjective anxiety.