Penguin vision in air and water

Refractive states measured by retinoscopy and photorefraction indicate that rockhopper (Eudyptes crestatus), Magellanic (Spheniscus magellanicus) and gentoo (Pygoscelis papua) penguins are approximately emmetropic in air and water. Extensive myopia in air, as predicted by early authors, is nonexistent. Photorefractive measurements of refractive state in water indicate that rockhopper, gentoo, Magellanic and king (Aptenodytes patagonica) penguins can accommodate sufficiently to make up for the loss of refractive power of the cornea. Corneas of rockhopper and Megellanic penguins are flattened relative to the overall size of the eye. This feature minimizes the optical effect of submergence.