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Stomach pH Regulation

Stomach pH Regulation

The human body carefully regulates the internal pH of different organs to maintain homeostasis. For example, while the blood plasma maintains a neutral pH of 7, the stomach lumen has an acidic pH of 1.5 - 3.5. The low pH of stomach lumen helps kill pathogens in the food and break down complex food molecules.
The acid-secreting gastric mucosal epithelial cells (parietal cells) lining the stomach lumen maintain the low pH in the lumen. Numerous ion transporters and channels on these parietal...

Stomach Histology

Stomach Histology

The stomach comprises several layers that work together to facilitate digestion and protect the organ. The outermost layer is called the serosa, which provides support and protection to the stomach. The muscularis externa layer is responsible for the mechanical breakdown of food by contracting and moving the stomach. The submucosa layer, located beneath the muscularis externa, contains connective tissue, blood vessels, nerves, and glands that secrete mucus and other substances essential for...

Gross Anatomy of the Stomach

Gross Anatomy of the Stomach

The human stomach is a vital part of the digestive system, performing multiple functions. It is located within the peritoneum, a serous membrane that lines the abdominal cavity. The stomach plays a central role in processing food substances and interacts with other digestive organs through coordinated digestive processes. The stomach has a characteristic J-shape and is divided into four main regions. The cardia is the first section where the esophagus connects to the stomach and is the entry...

Mucosal Barrier of the Stomach

Mucosal Barrier of the Stomach

The gastric glands contain parietal cells that secrete hydrochloric acid (HCl) for digestion. The cells secrete HCl because it is highly corrosive and essential for breaking down food. To achieve this, they secrete hydrogen and chloride ions into the lumen of the gastric glands, which combine to form HCl.
Within parietal cells, carbonic acid is first formed through the reaction of water and carbon dioxide. The dissociation of carbonic acid releases bicarbonate and hydrogen ions. The bicarbonate...

Hormones Secreted by the Stomach

Hormones Secreted by the Stomach

Enteroendocrine cells, accounting for only 1% of stomach epithelial cells, play a significant role in digestion and are classified by their digestive hormone secretions.
Each of these hormones secreted by different enteroendocrine cells plays a unique role in digestion. Here are a few examples:

What is Monogastric Digestion?

What is Monogastric Digestion?

The human body contains a monogastric digestive system. In a monogastric digestive system, the stomach only contains one chamber in which it digests food. Several other animal species also have monogastric digestive systems, including pigs, horses, dogs, and birds. This chapter, however, focuses on the human digestive system.

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Feb 9, 2026

Laparoscopic Cholecystectomy with Indocyanine Green Fluorescence: Choledochoscopic Stone Extraction and Primary Duct Suture

Laparoscopic Cholecystectomy with Indocyanine Green Fluorescence: Choledochoscopic Stone Extraction and Primary Duct Suture

Published on: November 25, 2025

The stomach after cholecystectomy.

American Journal of Surgery

|September 1, 1983

Summary

Cholecystectomy (gallbladder removal) does not increase the risk of developing gastric ulcers or lesions. This study found no significant link between gallbladder removal and subsequent gastric problems, refuting prior hypotheses.

Area of Science:

Gastroenterology
Surgical Outcomes

Background:

Gallbladder removal (cholecystectomy) accelerates bile salt circulation.
Bile reflux into the stomach post-cholecystectomy is hypothesized to cause gastric lesions.

Purpose of the Study:

To investigate the association between cholecystectomy and the development of gastric ulcers and mucosal lesions.
To test the hypothesis that gallbladder removal predisposes patients to gastric pathology.

Main Methods:

A matched case-control study involving 349 patients with gastric ulcers/lesions and 349 controls with upper gastrointestinal symptoms and normal endoscopy.
Comparison of cholecystectomy frequency between patient groups and their respective controls.

Main Results:

Cholecystectomy frequency was 4.3% in gastric ulcer patients (control 3.7%) and 3.8% in mucosal lesion patients (control 4.2%).

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No statistically significant difference in cholecystectomy rates was observed between cases and controls.

Relative risks for gastric ulcer and mucosal lesions associated with cholecystectomy were 1.3 and 0.85, respectively, with wide confidence intervals.

Conclusions:

The study does not support the hypothesis that cholecystectomy increases the risk of gastric lesions.
Results suggest that gallbladder removal is not a significant risk factor for developing gastric ulcers or mucosal lesions.