Stress, helplessness and control: the implications of laboratory studies

Limitations on the concept of stress, including unwarranted inferences about the non-specificity of responses, are illustrated through examination of the effects of behavioural control over aversive stimulation. Laboratory and clinical research indicates that control is beneficial, attenuating the magnitude of subjective, autonomic and neuroendocrine reactions. However, there are circumstances in which control is harmful, and is associated with heightened reactivity. This is particularly apparent in the cardiovascular system, and when attempts at control involve active, effortful coping behaviours. These distinctions are relevant to current theories concerning psychosocial influences on the aetiology of essential hypertension. They highlight the dangers of glib generalisations about the impact of demanding environmental conditions.