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Electrophiles02:28

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This lesson explains the definition, classification, and characteristic features of an electrophile that are key features of nucleophilic substitution reactions. An analysis of their charge and orbital picture helps understand their reactivity for seeking electrons. Electrophiles can be classified into positive and neutral species. Other classes include free radicals and polar functional groups.
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The electron transport chain or oxidative phosphorylation is an exothermic process in which free energy released during electron transfer reactions is coupled to ATP synthesis. This process is a significant source of energy in aerobic cells, and therefore inhibitors of the electron transport chain can be detrimental to the cell's metabolic processes.
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Microorganisms play a critical role in the transformation and immobilization of uranium in contaminated environments through four main pathways: bioreduction, biosorption, bioaccumulation, and biomineralization. These mechanisms reduce uranium’s toxicity and prevent its migration through groundwater systems, offering sustainable approaches for in situ bioremediation.Bioreduction of UraniumBioreduction is driven by anaerobic bacteria such as certain strains of Geobacter and Shewanella,...
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 6, 2026

A Whole Cell Bioreporter Approach to Assess Transport and Bioavailability of Organic Contaminants in Water Unsaturated Systems
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Sodium butyrate inhibits histone deacetylation in cultured cells.

E P Candido, R Reeves, J R Davie

    Cell
    |May 1, 1978
    PubMed
    Summary

    Sodium butyrate increases histone acetylation by inhibiting histone deacetylases. This fatty acid affects histone levels in various cell lines, impacting gene expression.

    Area of Science:

    • Biochemistry
    • Molecular Biology
    • Cell Biology

    Background:

    • Histone acetylation regulates gene expression.
    • Sodium butyrate is known to affect cellular processes.

    Purpose of the Study:

    • To investigate the mechanism by which sodium butyrate influences histone acetylation.
    • To determine if butyrate affects histone acetylation or deacetylation rates.

    Main Methods:

    • Treatment of various vertebrate cell lines with sodium butyrate.
    • Analysis of histone acetylation levels (H3, H4, H2A, H2B).
    • Assay of histone deacetylase activity in cell-free extracts.

    Main Results:

    • Sodium butyrate caused hyperacetylation of histones H3 and H4 in all tested cell lines.

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  • Histones H2A and H2B were also affected in rat IRC8 cells.
  • Butyrate inhibited histone deacetylation in cell-free extracts, not acetylation.
  • Histone deacetylase activity was inhibited by butyrate in vitro.

    • Conclusions:

    • Sodium butyrate acts as an inhibitor of histone deacetylases (HDACs).
    • This inhibition occurs both in vivo and in vitro.
    • Butyrate's effect on histone acetylation is mediated by suppressing deacetylation.