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Sympathetic Division of the ANS

Sympathetic Division of the ANS

The sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) plays a crucial role in preparing the body for stress, physical activity, and increased energy demands. This division activates the "fight-or-flight" response, enabling individuals to respond effectively to challenging situations.
Originating in the thoracic and lumbar spinal cord segments, the preganglionic fibers of the sympathetic division exit the spinal cord through the white ramus communicans. They then enter the sympathetic...

Sympathetic Pathways: Collateral Ganglia and Adrenal Medulla

Sympathetic Pathways: Collateral Ganglia and Adrenal Medulla

The sympathetic pathways of the collateral ganglia and adrenal medulla serve unique but interconnected roles in the sympathetic response.
Collateral Ganglia
Sympathetic preganglionic axons reach the collateral ganglia along the route of splanchnic nerves. These nerves bypass the sympathetic trunk and communicate with sympathetic postganglionic neurons housed in the prevertebral ganglia. These ganglia supply the organs of the abdominopelvic cavity.
The greater splanchnic nerve, formed by the...

Sympathetic Activation

Sympathetic Activation

The sympathetic division can influence tissues and organs by releasing norepinephrine at peripheral synapses and distributing epinephrine and norepinephrine through the bloodstream. In times of crisis or stress, sympathetic activation occurs, which is regulated by sympathetic centers in the hypothalamus. As a result, sympathetic activation prepares the body for physical exertion, rapid ATP production, and heightened alertness, allowing individuals to respond effectively to challenging or...

Adrenal Gland Disorders

Adrenal Gland Disorders

Adrenal gland disorders manifest when the production of adrenal hormones deviates from the norm, resulting in either excessive or insufficient concentrations.
Adrenal insufficiency, characterized by insufficient cortisol and aldosterone production, leads to conditions like Addison's disease. This disorder, affecting the adrenal cortex, exhibits symptoms such as skin bronzing, dehydration, low blood pressure, fatigue, and weight loss. Congenital adrenal hyperplasia, a genetic ailment causing...

Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation IV: Pharmacological Management

Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation IV: Pharmacological Management

Pharmacologic intervention is crucial in treating cardiac arrest patients during ACLS or Advanced Cardiovascular Life Support. The ACLS algorithms guide the administration of specific drugs based on the patient's cardiac arrest rhythm, which includes pulseless ventricular tachycardia (VT), ventricular fibrillation (VF), asystole, and pulseless electrical activity (PEA).EpinephrineIndication: Epinephrine is the first-line drug for all cardiac arrest rhythms.Mechanism of Action: Epinephrine...

Secondary Spinal Cord Injury llI: Pathophysiology

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Early Ischemia and Ionic ImbalanceWithin minutes of spinal cord injury, a secondary cascade begins, progressing over hours to weeks. Vascular damage reduces blood flow, causing ischemia and mitochondrial dysfunction. ATP depletion leads to ion pump failure, membrane depolarization, sodium influx, potassium efflux, and water accumulation, resulting in cellular swelling. Increased intracellular calcium further disrupts mitochondria and accelerates cellular injury.Excitotoxicity and Neuronal...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jul 21, 2026

Quantitative Autonomic Testing

Quantitative Autonomic Testing

Published on: July 19, 2011

Basal sympatho-adrenal function in quadriplegic man

B E Levin, B F Martin, B H Natelson

Journal of the Autonomic Nervous System

|December 1, 1980

Summary

Plasma catecholamines (CA) in quadriplegic men showed wide fluctuations, with higher epinephrine levels than normal. These levels indicate normal or increased sympatho-adrenal tone, likely controlled by spinal reflexes.

Area of Science:

Neuroscience
Physiology
Endocrinology

Background:

Quadriplegia can affect autonomic nervous system function.
Understanding sympatho-adrenal activity is crucial for managing autonomic dysfunction.

Purpose of the Study:

To investigate plasma catecholamine levels in chronic quadriplegic individuals.
To assess resting sympatho-adrenal tone in quadriplegia.

Main Methods:

Measured plasma catecholamines (norepinephrine and epinephrine) at 15-minute intervals over 4 hours in 5 quadriplegic males.
Correlated catecholamine spikes with physiological events like muscle spasms, urination, pain, blood pressure, and heart rate changes.

Main Results:

Plasma catecholamine levels fluctuated significantly, with frequent bursts of high levels.

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Median plasma norepinephrine levels were within the normal range, but epinephrine levels were elevated compared to controls.

Positive correlation between norepinephrine and epinephrine levels was observed in most subjects.

Conclusions:

Resting sympatho-adrenal tone in quadriplegics is not decreased; it is normal or increased.
Activation of the sympatho-adrenal system in quadriplegia may be mediated by local spinal reflexes.
Spinal reflexes appear capable of maintaining resting autonomic functions in quadriplegics.