Freud's penis-baby equation: exploratory tests of a controversial theory

Freud developed the controversial idea that pregnancy has phallic significance for women. He theorized that one aspect of the natural development of femininity involves the substitution of the wish for a baby in place of a desire for a penis. Two exploratory studies are described testing whether there is a link between pregnancy and phallic imagery as Freud's theory indicates. Study I supported such a link by showing that a group of women produced significantly more phallic imagery, on an inkblot measure, during pregnancy than they produced in the non-pregnant state. The pregnant women also produced significantly more phallic imagery than did a control group of non-pregnant women. Study II supported a 'penis-baby' link by showing that a group of women increased significantly in their phallic imagery under the impact of a subliminal pregnancy message while no increase occurred in a group of women receiving a subliminal message dealing with being penetrated. Alternative explanations for the findings are explored and issues are discussed in terms of other empirical findings related to Freud's ideas. The results suggest that Freud's speculations concerning pregnancy deserve further attention.