Toward an understanding of three control constructs: personal control, self-efficacy, and hardiness

The purpose of this paper is to further the understanding of three control models by describing their origins, definitions, generality, process, antecedents, and consequences. Each is applied to a clinical situation within a case study of a 98-year-old Caucasian woman living in a nursing facility. Similarities and differences among the models are reviewed. Implications for clinical practice and research are presented.