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Related Concept Videos

Renewal of Skin Epidermal Stem Cells01:12

Renewal of Skin Epidermal Stem Cells

The skin is divided into epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis, the skin's outermost, middle, and inner layers. The human epidermal layer regularly undergoes renewal, where old, dead cells are replaced by new cells. Epidermal stem cells or EpiSCs divide and differentiate to restore the lost cells. For the renewal process, some EpiSCs continuously self-renew. In contrast, few others differentiate into transit-amplifying cells, which later form prickle or spinous cells, followed by granular cells,...
Classification of Epithelial Tissues: Stratified Epithelium01:29

Classification of Epithelial Tissues: Stratified Epithelium

Stratified epithelium consists of several stacked layers of cells. They provide the durability to withstand constant physical and chemical attacks. Stratified epithelium is named after the shape of the most apical layer of cells. Stratified squamous epithelium is the most common type found in the human body. In this tissue, the apical cells are squamous, whereas the basal layer contains either columnar or cuboidal cells. The basal cells divide to form new daughter cells, which gradually become...
Cells of the Epidermis01:24

Cells of the Epidermis

The epidermis is made of four or five layers of epithelial cells, depending on its location in the body. From deep to superficial, these layers are the stratum basale, stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum, and stratum corneum.
The cells in all these layers except the stratum basale are called keratinocytes, a type of cell that manufactures and stores the protein keratin. The keratinocytes in the stratum corneum are dead and regularly slough away, being replaced by cells from...
Accessory Structures of the Skin: Hair Growth and Types01:20

Accessory Structures of the Skin: Hair Growth and Types

Hair growth begins with the production of keratinocytes by the basal cells of the hair bulb. As new cells are deposited at the hair bulb, the hair shaft is pushed through the follicle toward the surface. Keratinization is completed as the cells are pushed to the skin surface to form the shaft of hair that is externally visible. The external hair is completely dead and composed entirely of keratin. Hair can be cut or shaven without damaging the hair structure because the cut is superficial. Most...
Accessory Structures of the Skin: Nails01:05

Accessory Structures of the Skin: Nails

Nails are one of the important accessory structures of the skin. They are hard, protective structures that cover the dorsal surface of the distal phalanges of fingers and toes. Nails are composed of specialized keratinized cells and serve various functions, including protection, sensation, and manual dexterity.
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Nail Plate: The nail plate is the visible portion of the nail that extends beyond the fingertips or toes. It is a hard, translucent...
Layers of the Epidermis01:21

Layers of the Epidermis

The epidermis, the outermost layer of the skin, is composed of several distinct layers. From deep to superficial, the layers of the epidermis are as follows:
Stratum Basale
Stratum basale, also known as the stratum germinativum, is the deepest layer of the epidermis. It is composed of a single layer of actively dividing cells called basal cells or basal keratinocytes. These cells constantly undergo cell division to replenish the upper layers of the epidermis. Additionally, melanocytes, which...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jul 28, 2026

Generation of a Three-dimensional Full Thickness Skin Equivalent and Automated Wounding
08:35

Generation of a Three-dimensional Full Thickness Skin Equivalent and Automated Wounding

Published on: February 26, 2015

Keratinization

A G Matoltsy

    The Journal of Investigative Dermatology
    |July 1, 1976
    PubMed
    Summary

    Keratinization involves protein synthesis and degradation, forming a complex protective substance. This substance includes filaments and lipids, creating a resistant barrier in horny cells.

    Area of Science:

    • Biochemistry
    • Cell Biology
    • Dermatology

    Background:

    • Early research identified tonofibrils in malpighian cells as alpha-protein with sulfhydryl (--SH) groups.
    • It was hypothesized that keratin formation involved the conversion of these --SH groups to disulfide (--S--S--) bonds.
    • This --SH to --S--S-- conversion was considered the primary event in keratinization.

    Purpose of the Study:

    • To investigate the detailed biochemical and structural processes of keratinization.
    • To elucidate the composition and formation of the protective substance in horny cells.
    • To understand the role of different molecular components and bonds in skin barrier formation.

    Main Methods:

    • Analysis of protein composition and chemical modifications during keratinization.

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    Last Updated: Jul 28, 2026

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    08:35

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    Published on: February 26, 2015

    Isolation and Culture of Primary Mouse Keratinocytes from Neonatal and Adult Mouse Skin
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    Isolation and Culture of Primary Mouse Keratinocytes from Neonatal and Adult Mouse Skin

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  • Microscopic examination of horny cell structure and intercellular spaces.
  • Investigation of lipid distribution and membrane structures.

    • Main Results:

    • Keratinization proceeds through distinct synthetic and degradative phases.
    • Horny cells accumulate --SH-containing filaments within an amorphous matrix rich in --S--S-- bonds.
    • A thickened cell membrane, reinforced by --S--S-- bonds and an unidentified resistant bond, encases the cell.
    • Intercellular spaces in the stratum corneum contain bipolar lipids from membrane-coating granules.

    Conclusions:

    • Keratinization results in a complex protective substance, not solely reliant on --SH to --S--S-- conversion.
    • The final structure involves protein filaments, an amorphous matrix, a reinforced membrane, and intercellular lipids.
    • This intricate structure contributes to the skin's highly resistant protective barrier function.