Endocrine and neural control of estrus in dairy cows

During proestrus, gonadotropins induce final follicular maturation, resulting in increased secretion of estradiol. Estradiol, in the relative absence of progesterone, acts on the hypothalamus to induce estrous behavior. The mean duration of estrus is 12 to 16 h and ranges from 3 to 28 h. The effects of estradiol appear to be "all or none". That is, once a threshold of estradiol is achieved, estrus is induced, and additional amounts of estradiol above threshold do not further enhance the estrous response (duration and intensity of estrus). Also, progesterone can block the estrus-inducing actions of estradiol. In addition, prior exposure to progesterone does not potentiate the estrus-inducing actions of estradiol except in the early postpartum period. In dairy cows, the first postpartum ovulation is often "silent". In other words, ovulation is not preceded by estrous behavior. High levels of estradiol during late gestation apparently induce a refractory state such that the brain cannot respond to the estrus-inducing actions of estradiol at the first postpartum ovulation. Progesterone can "reset" the brain, allowing it to respond to subsequent estradiol exposure. In the case of the postpartum cow, the corpus luteum formed after the first ovulation provides the progesterone that resets the brain. As a consequence, the second postpartum ovulation is preceded by estrous behavior. Finally, stress (or injection of ACTH) has been shown to delay, shorten, or inhibit completely the expression of estrus in the presence of estrus-inducing concentrations of estradiol.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)