Systems of plant protection

A framework for associating pest management with farming systems may be characterized by a cropping index (number of crop cycles per year); a plant species homogeneity rank, described as the degree of monoculture or polyculture and intensity of use of modern, high-yielding varieties versus land races or traditional varieties; intensity of use of synthetic agrochemicals; the availability of societal infrastructure to support agriculture, such as irrigation and roads; and availability of support services such as credit, public/private sector research and extension services. Traditional methods of plant protection in the tribal areas of the Philippines rely heavily on ritual-based cultural practices that recognize the crop calendar and its activities as part of a larger social agenda. Most groundnut growers in West Africa utilize minimal inputs with little infrastructural support but they have often adopted improved varieties. Extensive farming systems with modern inputs are exemplified by wheat in the mid-western USA, where pests are managed mainly through host plant resistance. In intensive farming systems--vegetables in South-East Asia, wheat in The Netherlands and orchards in the USA--crop intensification is greatest and pest problems arising from overuse of pesticides are most noticeable. Unsustainable farming systems evolve if realistic plant protection is not taken into consideration.