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The Thyroid Gland

The Thyroid Gland

The thyroid gland is a small, butterfly-shaped gland located in the neck and covers the anterior surface of the trachea. The gland has two lateral lobes connected by a thin tissue mass called the isthmus. Internally, each lobe comprises many small spherical structures known as thyroid follicles, surrounded by a network of blood vessels.
The follicles have a central cavity lined by simple cuboidal to squamous epithelial cells called follicular cells. These cells produce the glycoprotein...

Synthesis and Regulation of Thyroid Hormones

Synthesis and Regulation of Thyroid Hormones

Low blood levels of the thyroid hormones — triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4) — signal the hypothalamus to release the thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH). TRH then reaches the pituitary gland and stimulates the release of thyroid-stimulating hormone(TSH) into the bloodstream.
Upon reaching the thyroid gland, TSH stimulates the follicular cells' active uptake of iodide ions from the blood. The ions diffuse to the apical surface of the cells and are oxidized to iodine. The iodine is then...

Hyperthyroidism I: Introduction

Hyperthyroidism I: Introduction

Hyperthyroidism is a type of thyrotoxicosis characterized by the thyroid gland's overproduction of the thyroid hormones triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). This hormone excess increases the basal metabolic rate and enhances sensitivity to catecholamines.DiagnosisDiagnosis is based on clinical features and biochemical testing. It typically shows suppressed thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) levels below 0.4 mIU/L, with elevated free T3 and/or T4. Additional tests, including thyroid...

Hyperthyroidism II: Pathophysiology

Hyperthyroidism II: Pathophysiology

Hyperthyroidism is a hypermetabolic state caused by elevated levels of thyroid hormones, triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). It results from dysregulation at the thyroid, pituitary, or immune system level and affects multiple organ systems.PathophysiologyThe most common cause of hyperthyroidism is Graves’ disease, an autoimmune disorder in which antibodies, specifically thyroid-stimulating antibodies (TSAb), a subtype of TSH receptor antibodies (TRAb), bind to and activate TSH receptors...

Goiter

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Goiter refers to an abnormal enlargement of the thyroid gland that may appear as a diffuse goiter (uniform enlargement) or nodular (single or multiple nodules). Functionally, it is classified as nontoxic (normal/low hormone levels) or toxic (excess hormone production).PathophysiologyDiffuse thyroid enlargement typically results from prolonged stimulation by thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) or TSH-like agents, commonly seen in hypothyroidism or iodine deficiency. In contrast, in hyperthyroid...

Hypothyroidism II: Pathophysiology

Hypothyroidism II: Pathophysiology

Hypothyroidism is a disorder characterized by insufficient production of thyroid hormones, which regulate metabolism, energy balance, and multiple organ systems.TypesHypothyroidism is classified based on the level of dysfunction. Primary hypothyroidism results from intrinsic thyroid gland dysfunction, causing reduced hormone production despite normal or increased stimulation. Secondary hypothyroidism arises from inadequate thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) secretion by the pituitary. Tertiary...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jul 23, 2026

An Orthotopic Mouse Model of Anaplastic Thyroid Carcinoma

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Published on: April 17, 2013

[Thyrotropin secreting adenoma]

¹Department of Neurosurgery, Jikei University School of Medicine.

Nihon Rinsho. Japanese Journal of Clinical Medicine

|October 1, 1993

Summary

Thyrotropin-secreting pituitary tumors (TSHomas) are rare, causing high thyroid hormone and TSH levels, though sometimes normal. Differentiating TSHomas from similar conditions is challenging, but alpha subunit hypersecretion is a key indicator.

Area of Science:

Endocrinology
Oncology
Pituitary Disorders

Background:

Thyrotropin (TSH)-secreting pituitary tumors (TSHomas) are rare neoplasms.
TSHomas cause elevated serum thyroid hormone and unsuppressed TSH levels, though levels can be normal in some cases.
Differential diagnosis includes TSH-secreting pituitary hyperplasia and Refetoff syndrome, presenting diagnostic challenges.

Purpose of the Study:

To highlight the diagnostic difficulties in differentiating TSHomas from other conditions.
To identify key characteristics aiding in TSHoma diagnosis.
To discuss current treatment options and their efficacy.

Main Methods:

Review of clinical presentations and diagnostic markers for TSHomas.
Comparison of TSHoma characteristics with similar pituitary disorders.

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Analysis of treatment outcomes for surgical and medical interventions.

Main Results:

Elevated thyroid hormones and TSH are typical but not universal in TSHoma.
Hypersecretion of the alpha subunit is a distinguishing feature of TSHoma.
Surgical excision is the primary treatment, but prognosis can be poor.

Conclusions:

Differentiating TSHomas requires careful evaluation of hormonal profiles and specific markers like alpha subunit hypersecretion.
While surgery is the first-line treatment, its effectiveness is limited.
Octreotide demonstrates utility in suppressing TSH levels, offering a valuable medical management option.