Protein-sulfenic acid stabilization and function in enzyme catalysis and gene regulation

Sulfenic acids (R-SOH) result from the stoichiometric oxidations of thiols with mild oxidants such as H2O2; in solution, however, these derivatives accumulate only transiently due to rapid self-condensation reactions, further oxidations to the sulfinic and/or sulfonic acids, and reactions with nucleophiles such as R-SH. In contrast, oxidations of cysteinyl side chains in proteins, where disulfide bond formation can be prevented and where the reactivity of the nascent cysteine-sulfenic acid (Cys-SOH) can be controlled, have previously been shown to yield stable active-site Cys-SOH derivatives of papain and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase. More recently, however, functional Cys-SOH residues have been identified in the native oxidized forms of the FAD-containing NADH peroxidase and NADH oxidase from Streptococcus faecalis; these two proteins constitute a new class within the flavoprotein disulfide reductase family. In addition, Cys-SOH derivatives have been suggested to play important roles in redox regulation of the DNA-binding activities of transcription factors such as Fos and Jun, OxyR, and bovine papillomavirus type 1 E2 protein. Structural inferences for the stabilization of protein-sulfenic acids, drawn from the refined 2.16-A structure of the streptococcal NADH peroxidase, provide a molecular basis for understanding the proposed redox functions of these novel cofactors in both enzyme catalysis and transcriptional regulation.