Localization and modulatory actions of zinc in vertebrate retina

Zinc ions are colocalized with glutamatergic synaptic vesicles in vertebrate photoreceptors and may act as a diffusible molecular switch regulating neurotransmitter signaling at two distinct sites in the outer retina. In the dark, extracellular zinc acts presynaptically at rods and cones to minimize the depletion of tonically released glutamate, and selectively reduces GABA-mediated depolarization in horizontal cells, accelerating the response kinetics of the second-order cells. The discovery of zinc ions in photoreceptors provides a mechanism for gain control, kinetics modulation, and the balance of rod vs cone output at the first synapse in the visual system.