Trefoil peptides: a newly recognized family of epithelial mucin-associated molecules

Members of the trefoil family of peptides are generally small stable secreted molecules, structurally related by the presence of one, or up to six, compact 6-cysteine motifs. Several trefoil peptides are expressed in mammalian gut and Xenopus gut and skin, often in association with mucins. Chronic ulcerative conditions of the gut, such as Crohn's disease, result in the growth of glandular structures of the ulcer-associated cell lineage (UACL) that secrete epidermal growth factor/urogastrone, transforming growth factor-alpha, and at least three trefoil peptides [pS2, human spasmolytic polypeptide (hSP), and intestinal trefoil factor (hITF/hP1.B)]. Neuroendocrine and goblet cells near the UACL are "recruited" into expressing pS2 and hSP, but the purpose of this concerted expression is unclear. A role in mucosal healing has been proposed. Biological functions of trefoil peptides have been difficult to establish. Pancreatic spasmolytic polypeptide of porcine origin inhibits gastric acid secretion and smooth muscle contraction and is a growth factor for some cultured cells, but pS2, once thought to be breast cancer specific, is not a mitogen. Recombinant trefoil peptides have allowed localization of binding sites and will allow structure-activity relationships to be studied, once the functions are clear.