Stable isotopes of lead for source identification

Lead is unique among all the metals in having variations among mining districts in the relative abundances of its stable (non-radioactive) isotopes. Since first described in 1927, many applications have been reported, mostly for geological uses. More recently archeological, environmental, bio-kinetic and public health uses have been found. The abundances of the four stable isotopes are usually determined with specialized mass spectrometry using rapid mass scanning cycles or multiple collectors. The relative abundances are commonly expressed as 206/204, 206/207, and 206/208 atomic ratios. Precision of 0.5% for 206/204 and even better (0.03%) for the other pairs are obtainable. The three ratios co-vary strongly and depend on when the ore was formed. This provides a tracer for following a particular batch of lead, since the ratio can only change when the lead is mixed with a different lead. A major limitation of this method is that it is useful only to those problems where the potential sources are isotopically distinct and few in number. The covariance of the ratios usually allows for only two sources to be considered. Potential sources can often be ruled out.