Stress-induced activation of nitric oxide-producing neurons in the rat brain

Nitric oxide (NO) is a gaseous neurotransmitter that may mediate a decrease in sympathetic output to the periphery. This implication predicts that NO-producing neurons in the brain are activated in animals experiencing increased levels of sympathetic activity. To test this prediction, we subjected three groups of experimental rats to differing levels of environmental stimulation for 1 hour: minimal stimulation, moderate stimulation, and restraint stress. NO-producing neurons were histochemically visualized in sections of the brain, and activation of these neurons was assessed according to the neuronal expression of the immediate early gene c-fos. Constitutive activation of NO-producing neurons was found in the hypothalamus (paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei), dorsal raphe nuclei, and spinal nucleus of the trigeminal nerve of minimally stimulated rats. When animals were subjected to a novel environment (moderate stimulation), additional NO-producing neurons were activated in the medial septum, medial amygdala, hypothalamic nuclei (lateral, periventricular, and posterior), colliculi, nucleus raphe obscurus, medial vestibular nucleus, nucleus of the tractus solitarius, and several components of the ventrolateral medulla. Restraint stress caused the activation of NO-producing neurons in all of these areas, often in increasing numbers, and the activation of additional NO-producing neurons in the diagonal band of Broca, lateral and medial preoptic areas, basomedial and basolateral amygdalar nuclei, hypothalamic nuclei (dorsomedial, retrochiasmatic supraoptic, and circularis), nucleus raphe pontus, lateral parabrachial nucleus, and pontine nuclei. Expressed as a proportion of NO-producing neurons per section, the largest percentages (>20%) of double-stained neurons were found in the basolateral amygdala (46%), hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus (35%), corpora quadrigemina (estimated at 40%), dorsal raphe (45%), nuclei raphe pontus (33%) and obscurus (63%), lateral parabrachial nucleus (22%), medial vestibular nucleus (25%), lateral division of the nucleus paragigantocellularis (26%), and lateral reticular nucleus (35%). Evidence from other studies increasingly supports the concept that NO plays a generalized role in autonomic regulation by decreasing sympathetic output. Our results show that more NO-producing neurons were activated during stress than during minimal or moderate levels of stimulation. Together, the evidence suggests that NO is a neurochemical messenger that is utilized by individual autonomic neurons as the organism responds to increased levels of sympathetic activity.