Effects of aging on conditional associative learning: process analyses and comparison with focal frontal lesions

Conditional associative learning (CAL), a measure validated in studies of frontal lesions, was used to evaluate the hypothesis that age-related cognitive decline is related to frontal dysfunction. Older adults and focal frontal participants showed impaired CAL performance, but the deficit was greater in the latter group, where it was specific to participants with dorsolateral prefrontal cortical (DLPFC) lesions. The deficits were attributable to strategic rather than basic associative processes. Error scores described ways in which past information failed to guide behavior, and they were related to lesion location. Congruence between older adults and DLPFC participants on a measure of defective inhibition suggests that age-related decline in inhibitory processes is due to DLPFC dysfunction.