Induction of visual imagery during NREM sleep

In an attempt to induce eye movements (EMs) in non-rapid eye movement sleep, light and sound stimuli were presented to human subjects (at below-waking threshold) during stage 2 sleep. EMs were used as an indicator of ponto-geniculo-occipital (PGO) wave activity. When at least one concurrent EM in response to the stimuli was observed, the subjects were awakened and mentation reports collected. Compared to equivalent control periods with no stimulation, awakenings from the stage 2 stimulation condition showed a higher frequency of visual imagery reports, electroencephalogram alpha activity, and k-complexes. Additional control and stimulation conditions elicited from rapid eye movement sleep awakenings showed no significant differences in the frequency of visual imagery reports. When the amount of alpha activity before stage 2 awakenings from which imagery was reported was compared to that from which imagery was not reported, imagery awakenings showed significantly more alpha. Results can be interpreted as evidence for a link between PGO activity and dreaming in humans or in terms of an arousal-window hypothesis of visual hallucinations.