Regulation of crustacean neurosecretory cell activity

1. The X organ-sinus gland system is a conglomerate of 150-200 neurosecretory cells in the eyestalk of crustaceans. It is the source of a host of peptide neurohormones which partake in the control of a wide range of physiological functions. Distinct families of X organ peptides have been chemically characterized: (a) two chromatophorotropic hormones of small sizes, one of 8 residues and the other of 15-20 residues; and (b) three metabotropic hormones of high molecular weight (70-80 residues), related to the control of blood sugar levels, molting, and gonad activity. Some of these hormones have been identified only in crustaceans; others are common to various arthropod groups. A number of peptides orginally described in other zoological groups are also present in the X organ-sinus gland system; such is the case for members of the FMRF-amide family, enkephalins, and other peptides. 2. Cells specifically containing each hormone have been located in the X organ and some information is available on the cellular and molecular substrate of the biosynthesis, transport, storage, and release of various hormones. The electrical activity of X organ neurons has been recorded at the cell soma, arborizations, axons, and neurosecretory terminals. Conspicuous regional differences have been defined for the various patterns of activity, as well as the distribution of their underlying ion currents. 3. The release of hormones and the electrical activity of X organ neurons are regulated by environmental and endogenous influences, such as light and darkness, stress, and circadian rhythms. These influences appear to be mediated by a host of neurotransmitters/modulators, most noticeably, gamma-aminobutyric acid, 5-hydroxytryptamine and other amines, and enkephalins. Each of these mediators acts upon a definite ionic substrate(s) and exerts specific regulatory effects on X organ cell activity. A given neuron may be under the control of more than one neurotransmitter, and a transmitter may mediate different and even opposite influences on different neurons.