A model for loading-dependent growth, development, and adaptation of tendons and ligaments
Related Experiment Video
Updated: Oct 29, 2026

Engineering Tendon Assembloids to Probe Cellular Crosstalk in Disease and Repair
Published on: March 22, 2024
T A Wren1, G S Beaupré, D R Carter
1Rehabilitation Research & Development Center, Veterans Affairs Health Care System, Palo Alto, CA 94304, USA. wren@bones.stanford.edu
Abstract:
The geometric and material properties of tendons and ligaments change during growth and development. While some of the changes occur in the absence of mechanical loading, normal development requires the mechanical stimulus provided by normal physical activity. We have developed an analytical framework for quantitatively describing changes in uniaxial tendon and ligament properties throughout ontogeny. In our approach, cross-sectional area, modulus, and strength undergo baseline levels of development due to inherent time-dependent biological influences. The properties also change in response to mechanobiological influences by adapting to maintain a constant daily strain stimulus under changing load conditions. We have implemented a computer algorithm based on these concepts and obtained results consistent with experimental observations of normal tendon and ligament growth and development reported by other investigators. Additional results suggest that these concepts can also explain tendon and ligament adaptation to increased or decreased loading experienced during development.
Related Concept Videos
Development of the Limb Synovial Joints
The mesenchymal stem cells differentiate into chondrocytes that form the hyaline cartilage, and later the cartilaginous model of the bone. This model further transforms into a bone. This process is known as endochondral ossification.
During development, the limbs...
Deformation of Member under Multiple Loadings
In the case of a member with a variable cross-section, the strain is not constant but depends on the position. The deformation of an...
Growth of Cartilage and Bone Tissue
Normal Strain under Axial Loading
Elastin is Responsible for Tissue Elasticity
Ligaments and tendons are made of dense regular connective tissue, but in ligaments not all fibers are parallel. Dense regular elastic tissue contains elastin fibers and...
Relation between Poisson's ratio, Modulus of Elasticity and Modulus of Rigidity

