Superficial and orthovoltage x-ray beam dosimetry

Output of superficial and orthovoltage x-ray units may be measured with cylindrical or end-window parallel-plate ionization chambers. The air-kerma calibration factors for these chambers are usually determined free in air, and the x-ray machine output is stated as the air-kerma rate free in air, which, when multiplied with the appropriate backscatter factor, gives the air-kerma rate on the surface of a phantom or patient. For end-window chambers, especially when they are used for measurements of small fields or low x-ray energies, the air-kerma calibration factors may also be determined with the chamber embedded in a tissue-equivalent phantom. This results in field size dependent air-kerma in-air calibration factors but obviates the requirement for knowledge of back-scatter factors when determining the air-kerma rate on the surface of a phantom. Since there still is considerable uncertainty in tabulated backscatter factors as a function of field size and x-ray beam energy, the output measurement technique which determines the air-kerma rate on phantom surface with a phantom-embedded end-window ionization chamber offers a clear advantage over the in-air calibration method.