Aerodynamics, kinematics, and energetics of horizontal flapping flight in the long-eared bat Plecotus auritus

The kinematics, aerodynamics, and energetics of Plecotus auritus in slow horizontal flight, 2-35 m s-1, are analysed. At this speed the inclination of the stroke path is ca. 58 degrees to the horizontal, the stroke angle ca. 91 degrees, and the stroke frequency ca. 11-9 Hz. A method, based on steady-state aerodynamic and momenthum theories, is derived to calculate the lift and drag coefficients as averaged over the whole wing the whole wing-stroke for horizontal flapping flight. This is a further development of Pennycuick's (1968) and Weis-Fogh's (1972) expressions for calculating the lift coefficient. The lift coefficient obtained varies between 1-4 and 1-6, the drag coefficient between 0-4 and 1-2, and the lift:drag ratio between 1-2 and 4-0. The corresponding, calculated, total specific mechanical power output of the wing muscles varies between 27-0 and 40-4 W kg-1 body mass. A maximum estimate of mechanical efficiency is 0-26. The aerodynamic efficiency varies between 0-07 and 0-10. The force coefficient, total mechanical power output, and mechanical and aerodynamic efficiencies are all plausible, demonstrating that the slow flapping flight of Plecotus is thus explicable by steady-state aerodynamics. The downstroke is the power stroke for the vertical upward forces and the upstroke for the horizontal forward forces.