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Contact-dependent Signaling01:19

Contact-dependent Signaling

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Contact-dependent signaling, as the name suggests, requires that communicating cells be in direct contact with each other. This is achieved either through receptor-ligand interactions or by specialized cytoplasmic channels that allow the flow of small molecules between cells. In animal cells, channels called gap junctions facilitate contact-dependent signaling in certain tissues, whereas, plasmodesmata perform a similar function in plants.
Gap Junctions
In animal cells, gap junctions are formed...
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Dietary Connections01:23

Dietary Connections

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In biological systems, most metabolic pathways are interconnected. The cellular respiration processes that convert glucose to ATP—such as glycolysis, pyruvate oxidation, and the citric acid cycle—tie into those that break down other organic compounds. As a result, various foods—from apples to cheese to guacamole—end up as ATP. In addition to carbohydrates, food also contains proteins and lipids—such as cholesterol and fats. All of these organic compounds are used...
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Frequency-dependent Selection01:21

Frequency-dependent Selection

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When the fitness of a trait is influenced by how common it is (i.e., its frequency) relative to different traits within a population, this is referred to as frequency-dependent selection. Frequency-dependent selection may occur between species or within a single species. This type of selection can either be positive—with more common phenotypes having higher fitness—or negative, with rarer phenotypes conferring increased fitness.
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Introduction to Connective Tissues01:11

Introduction to Connective Tissues

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Connective tissues are one of the four main tissue types in humans that are extensively present in the body. They are characterized by cells embedded in an extracellular matrix (ECM) composed of a ground substance and three main types of protein fibers— collagen, elastic, and reticular fibers. The ground substance of connective tissues can range from a watery and jelly-like consistency to mineralized and hard. The wide variety of cells in the connective tissues include fibroblasts,...
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Classification of Connective Tissues01:30

Classification of Connective Tissues

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The connective tissues have different properties and functions in the human body. They are broadly categorized into proper, supporting, or fluid connective tissues.
Connective Tissue Proper
Connective tissue proper is the most abundant class of connective tissues. As its name implies, it predominantly connects different tissues in the body. Depending on the cell types, ground substance, viscosity, and fiber types in the ECM, connective tissue proper is further categorized into loose and dense....
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Embryonic Connective Tissues01:20

Embryonic Connective Tissues

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During early development, the embryo forms two types of connective tissues— the mesenchyme and mucoid connective tissue.
The mesenchyme is the first connective tissue that emerges in the developing embryo. It consists of loosely arranged multipotent mesenchymal cells and reticular fibers in the extracellular matrix. This loose arrangement allows easy migration of cells, which is essential for germ layer positioning, patterning, and organ morphogenesis during embryonic development.
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Video Experimental Relacionado

Updated: Feb 13, 2026

Methods for the Modulation and Analysis of NF-κB-dependent Adult Neurogenesis
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Methods for the Modulation and Analysis of NF-κB-dependent Adult Neurogenesis

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α-tACS Modula las Respuestas Pupilar Dependientes de la Recompensa y la Conectividad Corticostriatal

David V Smith, James B Wyngaarden, Sarah M Weinstein

    bioRxiv : the preprint server for biology
    |February 12, 2026
    PubMed
    Resumen

    La estimulación cerebral no invasiva de la corteza prefrontal ventrolateral (VLPFC) influye en el procesamiento de la recompensa al modular la excitación y las redes corticostriatales. Este enfoque ofrece una nueva forma de estudiar y potencialmente tratar la disfunción de la recompensa.

    Palabras clave:
    estimulación cerebral no invasivaprocesamiento de la recompensacorteza prefrontal ventrolateralexcitación fisiológicaconectividad corticostriatalneurocienciaciencia cognitivapsicología

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    Área de la Ciencia:

    • Neurociencia
    • Ciencia Cognitiva
    • Psicología

    Sus antecedentes:

    • La estimulación cerebral no invasiva ayuda a comprender los mecanismos neuronales del procesamiento de la recompensa.
    • Los métodos actuales como la TMS y la tES tienen dificultades para alcanzar regiones cerebrales profundas como el estriado.
    • La corteza prefrontal ventrolateral (VLPFC) tiene fuertes conexiones con el estriado, lo que sugiere un potencial de modulación indirecta.

    Objetivo del estudio:

    • Investigar si la estimulación de la VLPFC puede influir indirectamente en las respuestas neuronales y fisiológicas relacionadas con el procesamiento de la recompensa.
    • Examinar los efectos de la estimulación transcraneal de corriente alterna (α-tACS) en la actividad y la conectividad relacionadas con la recompensa.

    Principales métodos:

    • Los participantes realizaron una tarea de adivinanza de cartas con recompensas/castigos monetarios.
    • Se utilizó imagen por resonancia magnética funcional (fMRI) y pupilometría concurrentes durante la α-tACS dirigida a la VLPFC o a una región de control.
    • Las mediciones incluyeron dilatación pupilar, activación cerebral (BOLD) y conectividad funcional del estriado ventral-corteza cingulada anterior dorsal (VS-dACC).

    Principales resultados:

    • La estimulación de la VLPFC aumentó la dilatación pupilar durante la recompensa y el castigo, lo que indica una mayor excitación fisiológica.
    • La α-tACS moduló la actividad de la VLPFC, aumentándola durante la recompensa y suprimiéndola durante el castigo.
    • La estimulación alteró la conectividad VS-dACC de forma dependiente del contexto, con cambios que se correlacionaron con la dilatación pupilar.

    Conclusiones:

    • La VLPFC dirigida con α-tACS modula eficazmente la actividad cortical local y las redes corticostriatales durante el procesamiento de la recompensa.
    • Esto proporciona un método no invasivo prometedor para influir en el circuito de la recompensa.
    • Los hallazgos vinculan la actividad cerebral, la conectividad y las respuestas autonómicas en el procesamiento de la recompensa.