Electrodos de gel blando de hormigón con un criterio de inestabilidad unificado para baterías acuosas sostenibles

Electrochemical energy storage has long been constrained by the structural instability of solid electrodes and the costly design of liquid-based systems. Here, we report a transformative concrete soft-gel electrode that reconciles mechanical robustness with interfacial fluidity, enabling improved stability in aqueous full batteries. Critically, we uncover the fundamental origin of electrode detachment and propose the Ji-Ran instability criterion, which unifies osmotic pressure, electrokinetic shear, and elastic-adhesive balance into a single quantitative framework. Inspired by structural concrete, the incorporation of BaTiO₃ particles reinforces the soft-gel network, raising elastic modulus, adhesion energy, and interfacial integrity. The resulting full batteries deliver high Coulombic efficiency, mitigated capacity decay, and facile recyclability via water-assisted disassembly. This work establishes a generalizable paradigm for concrete soft-gel electrodes and opens a pathway to sustainable, long-lasting aqueous batteries.