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Exceptions to the Octet Rule 02:55

37.3K

Many covalent molecules have central atoms that do not have eight electrons in their Lewis structures. These molecules fall into three categories:


Odd-electron molecules have an odd number of valence electrons and therefore have an unpaired electron.
Electron-deficient molecules have a central atom with fewer electrons than needed for a noble gas configuration.
Hypervalent molecules have a central atom that has more electrons than needed for a noble gas configuration.


Odd-electron...

Lewis Symbols and the Octet Rule 02:36

80.3K

Chemical bonds are complex interactions between two or more atoms or ions, which reduce the potential energy of the molecule. Gilbert N. Lewis developed a model called the Lewis model that simplified the depiction of chemical bond formation and provided straightforward explanations for the chemical bonds seen in most common compounds.  

Lewis Model

The Lewis model depicts chemical bond formation by the sharing or transfer of valence electrons, which helps to attain a stable electron...

The Aufbau Principle and Hund's Rule 03:02

72.3K

To determine the electron configuration for any particular atom, we can build the structures in the order of atomic numbers. Beginning with hydrogen, and continuing across the periods of the periodic table, we add one proton at a time to the nucleus and one electron to the proper subshell until we have described the electron configurations of all the elements. This procedure is called the aufbau principle, from the German word aufbau (“to build up”). Each added electron occupies the...

Distance Corrections 01:15

284

To achieve precise distance measurements, especially in surveying and construction, certain corrections must be applied to account for potential sources of error like the standardization errors, temperature variations, and slope adjustments.Standardization error emerges when measurement equipment undergoes changes, such as wear, repairs, or weather impacts. To address this, surveyors compare the equipment’s readings to a standard. This process identifies any deviation that might lead to...

The Quotient Rule 01:30

48

The quotient rule is a fundamental differentiation technique in calculus used to differentiate functions expressed as a ratio of two differentiable functions. Given a function of the form:Where g(x) and h(x) are both differentiable and h(x) ≠ 0, the derivative of f(x) is given by:Example:The quotient rule is beneficial when differentiating rational functions, trigonometric ratios, and exponential functions. For example, given:applying the quotient rule,This rule is essential in solving...

Midpoint Rule 01:20

50

Approximating areas under curved boundaries is a common problem in applied mathematics, particularly when an exact calculation is difficult or impractical. One effective numerical method for this purpose is the Midpoint Rule, which provides an estimate of the area under a curve by using rectangular approximations over a specified interval.Description of the Midpoint RuleThe Midpoint Rule begins by dividing the given interval into a number of equal subintervals. For each subinterval, the...