All atomic particles possess an intrinsic angular momentum, or 'spin'. Electrons, protons, and neutrons each have a spin value of ½, although protons and neutrons in nuclei may have higher half-integer spins owing to energetic factors.
Atomic nuclei have a net nuclear spin, , which can have an integer or half-integer value. In atomic nuclei, the spins of protons are paired against each other but not with neutrons, and vice versa. Consequently, an even number of protons does not contribute to...

In the absence of an external magnetic field, nuclear spin states are degenerate and randomly oriented. When a magnetic field is applied, the spins begin to precess and orient themselves along (lower energy) or against (higher energy) the direction of the field. At equilibrium, a slight excess population of spins exists in the lower energy state. Because the direction of the magnetic field is fixed as the z-axis,  the precessing magnetic moments are randomly oriented around the z-axis. This...

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) is a type of scanning probe microscopy that can analyze topographic details of various specimens like ceramics, glass, polymers, and biological samples. AFM offers over 1000 times more resolution than the optical imaging system. Images generated from AFM are three-dimensional surface profiles, offering an advantage over the flat, two-dimensional images from other imaging techniques.
The AFM Probe
The probe is regarded as the heart of any AFM setup and comprises the...

Nuclear relaxation restores the equilibrium population imbalance and can occur via spin–lattice or spin–spin mechanisms, which are first-order exponential decay processes.
In spin–lattice or longitudinal relaxation, the excited spins exchange energy with the surrounding lattice as they return to the lower energy level. Among several mechanisms that contribute to spin–lattice relaxation, magnetic dipolar interactions are significant. Here, the excited nucleus transfers energy to a nearby...

Atomization, converting samples into gas-phase atoms and ions, is essential for atomic spectroscopy. The flame temperature required for atomization affects the efficiency of the atomic spectroscopic methods by increasing the atomization efficiency and the relative population of the excited and ground states.
At thermal equilibrium, the relative populations of excited and ground state atoms can be estimated using the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution. For example, an increase in temperature from...

Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS) atomizes samples through flame atomization or electrothermal atomization. Flame atomization typically involves a nebulizer and spray chamber assembly to combine the sample with a fuel–oxidant mixture, creating a fine aerosol mist that enters a burner. Typically, the fuel and oxidant are combined in an approximately stoichiometric ratio. However, for atoms that are easily oxidized, a fuel-rich mixture may be more advantageous. Only about 5% of the aerosol...