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Updated: Jan 9, 2026

Ultrasound-guided Botulinum Toxin-A Injections: A Method of Treating Sialorrhea
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Ultrasound-guided Botulinum Toxin-A Injections: A Method of Treating Sialorrhea

Published on: November 9, 2016

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新型肉毒素A用于上面美学的现实世界结果:来自常规临床实践的见解

Konstantin Frank, Nikolaus Duschek, Valentina Prinz

    Aesthetic surgery journal. Open forum
    |December 1, 2025
    PubMed
    概括

    用letibotulinumtoxinA (Letybo) 进行全面的面部上部治疗,有效地减少了脑膜,额头和角膜.

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    Single-stage Dynamic Reanimation of the Smile in Irreversible Facial Paralysis by Free Functional Muscle Transfer19:53

    Single-stage Dynamic Reanimation of the Smile in Irreversible Facial Paralysis by Free Functional Muscle Transfer

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    Directly acting muscle relaxants like dantrolene and botulinum toxin (BoNT) have distinct mechanisms and applications. Dantrolene, a hydantoin derivative, acts on the ryanodine receptor (RYR1) in skeletal muscle cells. RYR1 are calcium channels present at the sarcoplasmic reticulum membrane. In response to excitation, they release calcium ions from the sarcoplasmic reticulum to the cytosol. Calcium promotes actin-myosin-mediated contraction of muscles.
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    Skeletal muscle relaxants are used to relax muscle tone and alleviate painful muscle contractions. However, the choice of skeletal muscle relaxants depends on the duration of the surgical procedure in order to minimize potential side effects. Skeletal muscle relaxants like neuromuscular blocking agents [NMBAs] are commonly employed as adjuvants alongside general anesthetics in clinical settings. NMBAs are also used to maintain controlled ventilation during surgery of the larynx or pharynx...
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    Intravenous regional anesthesia or the Bier block technique is used to anesthetize a specific limb or extremity. It uses exsanguinated or blood-drained vessels to transport local anesthetics or LAs to the peripheral nerve trunks. Lidocaine without vasoconstrictors like epinephrine is most commonly used for this technique. Other drugs used are prilocaine, ropivacaine, and chloroprocaine. Bupivacaine is not recommended for this technique due to its high cardiac toxicity.
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    Skeletal muscle relaxants are widely used for muscle paralysis and relieving pain following any muscle injury or stiffness. However, depending on the drug type, they can have adverse effects that range from mild to severe. Usually, nondepolarizing neuromuscular blockers have minimal side effects. For example, drugs like d-tubocurarine, cisatracurium, and rocuronium cause hypotension, whereas drugs like baclofen, when stopped abruptly, can lead to the recurrence of spastic conditions.
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    Nondepolarizing neuromuscular blockers prevent the membrane depolarization of muscle cells and inhibit muscle contraction. These are usually administered with anesthetics to achieve complete muscle relaxation. Upon administration, these drugs first block the small, rapidly contracting muscles of the face and hands, followed by the larger muscles of the trunk and the intercostal muscles. The diaphragm is the last muscle to be affected.
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