Ptosis evaluation and management in the 21st century

Determining the etiology and appropriate management of ptosis requires a directed evaluation seeking specific signs and symptoms. The clinical significance of such concomitant findings as motility deficits, pupillary abnormalities, levator function abnormalities, ocular manifestations, and associated systemic symptoms are discussed. Management options for correction of specific types of ptosis are reviewed. The clinical application of new technologies, such as the CO2 laser, or molecular biology, such as muscle cell transplantation or gene mapping, open exciting possibilities for future novel therapeutic alternatives. With an emphasis on newer and better, the fundamental question of indications and outcomes will remain relevant.